The latest scramble for Africa is driven by securing access to rare minerals used in the manufacture of lithium-ion batteries for vehicles and stationary applications.
The most strategic is China.
According to Desmond Egyin of the Wilson Center, China currently owns 72% of the cobalt and copper mines in the Zambian and Democratic Republic of Congo's (DRC) Copperbelt.
A study by the Georgetown University Center for Security Studies found that Chinas mining operations in the Copperbelt and lithium mining in Zimbabwe give the country a significant lead in semiconductor and battery production.
This leaves the rest of the world increasingly dependent on Chinese innovation and manufacturing to drive global energy transitions and address climate change.
Chinese mining companies are responsible for 8% of Africa-wide output, and are concentrated in Guinea, Zambia, DRC, South Africa and Zimbabwe, according to Eric Olander, co-founder of the China-Global South Project.
The largest mining companies in Africa include BHP Billiton, Rio Tinto, Anglo American, Xstrata and Barrick, says online information service Africa Mining IQ.
China is, however, the top destination for bulk exports.
UNcomtrade data shows that China is by far the leading destination for sub-Saharan exports of bulk commodities such as iron ore, nickel ore, and copper ore.
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